The Evolutionary Origins of Morality

by | Jul 10, 2023

Human beings have a strong moral sense, a belief in what behaviour is right and what is wrong. We may not always agree on exactly what is right, but that there is right and wrong is an almost universal human sensibility. Throughout human history there has been continual debate about the nature of this moral sense: where it comes from and how it works. An important part of that discussion has been about whether our moral faculties are developed through reason and then applied to our actions, or whether they are based on innate abilities and that we rationalise about them only after the event.

Historically, many philosophers have followed Immanuel Kant in seeing morality as being grounded in our rationality. He insisted that morality must be based on a supreme moral principle which can only be discovered through a method of pure moral philosophy. This view sees reason as essential to morality and assumes that any being lacking moral reasoning cannot behave morally. It has been highly influential in western thinking.

Frans de Waal has made an important contribution to this discussion. De Waal is a Dutch primatologist who is renowned for his study of the behaviour of chimpanzees and bonobo’s, the primates most closely related to humans. He has won many scientific awards for his work, and in 2007 was one of Time Magazine’s world’s 100 most Influential people.

Over the years de Waal has published numerous works on primate social behaviour (eg, Chimpanzee Politics and Our Inner Ape). He has discovered that both chimpanzees and bonobos share very similar social lives to humans. De Waal has researched in detail the innate primate capacity for co-operation and its relation to empathy. This has led him to speculate on the biological basis of morality, which he sees as developing not from reason, but bottoms-up:

“The view of morality as a set of immutable principles, or laws, that are ours to discover ultimately comes from religion. It doesn’t really matter whether it is God, human reason, or science that formulates these laws. All of these approaches share a top-down orientation, their chief premise being that humans don’t know how to behave and that someone must tell them. But what if morality is created in day-to-day social interaction, not at some abstract mental level? What if it is grounded in the emotions, which most of the time escape the neat categorizations that science is fond of?”

Frans de Waal, The Bonobo and the Atheist, 2013. P23

Having developed his views on the innate biological basis of morality, de Waal has engaged in a series of discussions with philosophers and others interested in understanding morality. In his work Primates and Philosophers, he opposes “veneer theory”, which assumes that humans are essentially evil and selfish. In this view, morality is a cultural overlay (a veneer) which constrains our worst behaviour. So, morality only exists in human social groups, and requires reason to establish the norms of what is moral behaviour. Veneer theory was developed in the 19th century by Thomas Huxley and was the dominant view amongst biologists until the end of the 20th century.

By contrast, based on his research on primates, de Waal has a strong view that humans have innate capacities for co-operation and empathy. He sees these as forming the basis for morality and argues for a view which seeks to ground morality in human nature:

“This school sees morality arise naturally in our species and believes that there are sound evolutionary reasons for the capacities involved. Nevertheless, the theoretical framework to explain the transition from social animal to moral human consists only of bits and pieces. Its foundations are the theories of kin selection and reciprocal altruism, but it is obvious that other elements will need to be added. If one reads up on reputation building, fairness principles, empathy, and conflict resolution, there seems a promising movement toward a more integrated theory of how morality may have come about”.

Frans de Waal, Primates and Philosophers 2006, p53

From this, it’s clear that he sees there is work to be done. But, that it has started and is founded on empirical research gives de Waal confidence in this approach.

Seven years after Primates and Philosophers, in The Bonobo and the Atheist, de Waal explains how quickly veneer theory disappeared. De Waal was central in challenging that outlook. He has been joined by psychologists such as Jonathan Haidt in identifying the innate basis of moral decisions. Together they are laying the foundations for an evolutionary view of morality.

The subtitle of The Bonobo and the Atheist is In Search of Humanism Among Primates. The book gives a strong argument for placing a humanist view at the centre of research into human faculties, and especially morality. De Waal holds a profoundly humanist view of the world, but is also critical of those (such as Richard Dawkins) who are anti-religious:

“ . . humanism is nonreligious, not anti-religious. Tolerance of religion, even if religion is not always tolerant in return, allows humans to focus on what is most important, which is to build a better society based on natural human abilities. The outcome is the ongoing experiment in the West of an increasingly secular society.”

Frans de Waal, The Bonobo and the Atheist, 2013. P237

De Waal’s books are always a pleasure to read. They are imbued with the passion and warmth of someone who believes we can understand human nature through scientific research. He also shows, with great examples from his research, that human nature comes not only from our selfish genes but is also built around our innate empathy, compassion, and kindness.

Recommended Reading

The Bonobo and the Atheist: In Search of Humanism Among the Primates

by Frans de Waal

In this lively and illuminating discussion of his landmark research, esteemed primatologist Frans de Waal argues that human morality is not imposed from above but instead comes from within. Moral behaviour does not begin and end with religion but is in fact a product of evolution.

For many years, de Waal has observed chimpanzees soothe distressed neighbours and bonobos share their food. Now he delivers fascinating fresh evidence for the seeds of ethical behaviour in primate societies that further cements the case for the biological origins of human fairness. Interweaving vivid tales from the animal kingdom with thoughtful philosophical analysis, de Waal seeks a bottom-up explanation of morality that emphasizes our connection with animals. In doing so, de Waal explores for the first time the implications of his work for our understanding of modern religion. Whatever the role of religious moral imperatives, he sees it as a “Johnny-come-lately” role that emerged only as an addition to our natural instincts for cooperation and empathy.

Reviews:

Scientific Amercian MIND Reviews: The Bonobo and the Atheist

The Guardian: Behaving like animals: The Bonobo and the Atheist

 

Primates and Philosophers: How Morality Evolved

by Frans de Waal

“It’s the animal in us,” we often hear when we’ve been bad. But why not when we’re good? Primates and Philosophers tackles this question by exploring the biological foundations of one of humanity’s most valued traits: morality.

In this provocative book, primatologist Frans de Waal argues that modern-day evolutionary biology takes far too dim a view of the natural world, emphasizing our “selfish” genes. Science has thus exacerbated our reciprocal habits of blaming nature when we act badly and labelling the good things we do as “humane.” Seeking the origin of human morality not in evolution but in human culture, science insists that we are moral by choice, not by nature.

Reviews:

The New York Times: Scientist Finds the Beginnings of Morality in Primate Behavior

 

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